24 April 2016 "Gender Dynamics Inherent in the Witchcraft and Sorcery Discourses of African Traditional Religions"
An essay written for a theology course taken at the University of Cape Town.
In many types of
African Traditional Religions, there is represented a type of “dark magic”
performed by human beings. Though different ethnic groups have different definitions/names
for this dark magic and for those who perform it, Westerners have universally dubbed
this dark magic as “witchcraft”. And though there are many discrepancies in
different African ethnic groups about what exactly a “witch” is, in almost
every culture they are feared by all as powerful, unpredictable forces. What
can be understood from David Westerlund’s essay “Witchery Among the Sukuma,
Kongo, and Yoruba”, and JDY Peel’s piece regarding “Gender in
Yoruba Religious Change” is that African Traditional Religions’ understanding
of “witchraft” and the gender dymanics inherent in it are complex. These
complexities are made only more so by attempting to adopt a Western
understanding of such non-Western concepts.
The concept of “witchcraft”, though
inherently unique within each, is extremely similar within the Sukuma, Kongo,
and Yoruba. In order to provide clarification of the concept, I have chosen to
briefly define witchcraft within each of the three ethnic groups, focusing on a
more in-depth definition of the concept as understood within the realm of the
Sukuma and the Kongo, and a more in-depth analysis regarding the gender themes
inherent in Yorubaland. In this way I hope to highlight the most important
themes of witchcraft in African Traditional Religions.
The
Sukuma use the term bulogi to refer
to a human being who practices magic, or to refer to what Westerners call
“black magic” in general. The balogi
are assumed by some to practice their evil through extraordinary powers, and by
others through techniques of sorcery.[1] Misfortune
that occurs is often attributed to the presence of balogi. For instance, it is commonly known by the Sukuma that balogi are frequently responsible for
illnesses such as: “meningitis, nervous disorders, mental afflictions, venereal
diseases and sterility”.[2]
Though
both women and men can be accused of being balogi,
it happens that women are more typically accused than men. Interestingly, it is
often the wives of polygamous men who are most often accused of being balogi.[3]
This is perhaps due in part to inequality within polygamous
households—younger wives might feel jealous of the power held by senior wives
and make a witch accusation in order to “solve” their problems.
However,
“extraordinary power”[4] is
not limited to the realm of the balogi.
Chiefs (balemi) and healers (bafumu) are also believed to have powers
greater than those of regular people. These powers, unlike that of the balogi, are typically used for good
rather than evil. Bafimu are
respected by the Sukuma.[5]
The
belief in witchcraft is believed to have increased within the Sukuma in recent
decades, despite the spread of Christianity. This increase has led to a further
belief in the balogi being a core
cause of illness and misfortune. As a result, there have been increased
instances of witchery accusations, and killings of the accused. A common
occurrence is the killing of accused women by groups of men.[6]
The Kongo people believe in a
concept referred to as kundoki, a
term which, very similar to the Sukuma term of bulogi, can be understood by Westerners as both “witchery” and
sorcery”. However, the concept of kundoki
highlights the special importance of witchcraft specifically.[7]
Kundoki
is dubbed as a morally ambivalent superpower; in other words, it is not
inherently good or bad on its own. Instead, it can be utilized by humans in
whichever way they choose. For instance, chiefs and healers, otherwise known as
banganga, have historically been
believed by the Kongo people to utilize kundoki
with purely good intentions. However, witches and sorcerers, known by the
Kongo people as bandoki, use kundoki for more evil, destructive
means.[8] Almost
every illness can be attributed to bandoki,
or kundoki, including those illnesses
that cause men or women to be unable to reproduce.[9]
Among the Yoruba, almost everyone,
regardless of their age, sex, or status, believes fiercely in the existence of dark
magic. Among the Yoruba, witchcraft is believed to be the most common cause of
death. Illnesses having to do with inability to reproduce or with pregnancy
difficulties/birth defects are almost always assumed to be the work of
witchcraft.[10]
Witchcraft in Yoruba society is an
anomaly—in a society very much less gendered than Western society, witchcraft
represents a highly stigmatized, highly gendered system of belief. As JDY Peel
explains: “There was a strong gender bias in the social arrangements for the
detection and punishment of witches.”[11]To
be accused of witchcraft in Yoruba society is a very serious offense, and many
women have been lynched by angry people, whipped to death, or expelled from
their communities. Like the Sukuma, it is common for the killing of witches to
be reserved as jobs for men.
There is an interesting explanation
for this phenomenon. Among the Yoruba, as among other African ethnic groups,
the realm of giving life is reserved for women. This is what makes witches so
heinous—to be a woman who takes life away instead of giving it is an
unforgivable offense.[12] Therefore,
the reasoning behind many witches being killed by groups of men is that it
keeps women outside the realm of killing.
An interesting perspective to
consider is the involvement of Westernization in the realm of gender dynamics
within African Traditional Religions. After all, defining the unique phenomenon
of the balogi and bandoki universally as “witchcraft” is a
Western construct. Does this mean that much of the gender dynamics present in
African Traditional Religions are also Western constructs?
The answer is both yes and no. While
the introduction of such tradition as Christianity certainly has had an impact
on African Traditional Religions, is would be naïve to assume that certain
African Traditional Religions pre-Westernization existed in a completely
genderless way. Instead, it is important to recognize how these gender dynamics
have existed both in the past and in the present.
References:
Peel, JDY. 2002. “Gender in Yoruba Religious Change.”
Journal of Religion in Africa
32, 2: 136-166.
Westerlund, David.
2006. “Witchery among the Sukuma, Kongo, and Yoruba.” In
African Indigenous Religions and
Disease Causation: from Spiritual Beings to
Living Humans, 165-188. Leiden: Brill.
[1] Westerlund, David. 2006. “Witchery
among the Sukuma, Kongo, and Yoruba.” In African
Indigenous Religions and Disease Causation: from Spiritual Beings to Living
Humans, 165-188. Leiden: Brill.
[7]
Ibid.
[8]
Ibid.
[9]
Ibid.
[10]
Ibid.
[11]
Peel, JDY.
2002. “Gender in Yoruba Religious Change.” Journal of Religion in Africa 32, 2:
136-166.
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